Latin America
Fall 1999

MIDDLE AMERICA
 
 

A. Although Middle America is part of Latin America, this section of the world belongs to the North American continent. Physiographically, North America terminates at the Atrato River Valley in Columbia, South America.
 
 

1.) Population of Middle America estimates are for 1997:

I.) Mexico - 96 million
 
 

ii.) Central America - 32 million
 
 

iii.) Caribbean America - 36 million
 
 

iv.) Total Population for Middle America is 164 million.
 
 

v.) Over 70 % of the population is already urbanized.
 
 

vi.) In the mid-1990's, the rate of natural increase for Mexico and Central America was 2.3% with a potential for doubling the total population every 30 years.
 
 

vii.) For the Caribbean Islands, the rate increase and doubling its population was 1.4% and 51 years, respectively.
 
 

2.) Racial/Ethnic Composition
 
 

a.) Indians - They live in the Highlands of Mexico and Central America.
 
 

b.) Mestizos - Indians and white (Spanish) ancestry. They live in the Highlands of Mexico and Central America.
 
 

c.) Europeans - Spanish, English, and French. The Spaniards live in the Highlands where they found the Indians and where the climate is temperate as in Europe. The English and French live in the Caribbean Islands and Belize, Central America.
 
 

d.) Blacks - They live in the Rimland of Middle America, that is, in the Caribbean Islands and the coastline of Central America or from Belize to Panama.
 
 

e.) Mulattos - Black and white ancestry. They live mainly in the Caribbean islands.

f.) Zambos - They live mainly in the Caribbean Islands and are a result of a union of Indians who lived in the mountains of Jamaica and Hispaniola and blacks who escaped from plantations.
 
 

B. The Physiography of Middle America.
 
 

The physiography of Middle America has fragmented the numerous cultures of the American Indian as well as their decedents, and the mountainous regions are, in part, responsible for the domestication of plants and animals, and as we have seen, this process was due to the variety in the terrain and climate which we find in close proximity.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment # 14: "Run for the Border: NAFTA", pages 216-217.
 
 

a.) Baja California consists of an 800-mile peninsula is dominated by igneous, intrusive rock with lava caps. The mountains are known as the Juarez mountains; and they are an extension of the San Bernardino Mountains in Southern California.
 
 

Diagram of Baja California.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The flat area of the peninsula includes the Colorado Delta which is 150 miles long, but it has "mud volcanoes", swamps, and areas are prone to flooding. It also contains a large amount of sedimentation that is transported by the Colorado River and that was once (the Salton Sea) part of the Gulf of California.
 
 

Except for the international boundary along the United States, the peninsula is sparsely populated. The people live from tourism, especially fishing, from local mining of iron, lead and zinc, and from subsistence agriculture.

b. Coastal Fringe of Western Mexico- The western coast is effectively cut off from the interior of Mexico by the Sierra Madre Occidental. This area is relatively narrow, and it has finger-like extensions of the mountains to form valleys wherein rivers lie. These river valleys are utilized for agricultural purposes. Here, farmers grow rice, sugar cane, wheat, oats, tobacco, cotton, and raise cattle and pigs.
 
 
 
 

c. Sierra Madre Occidental- This mountain range extends from the U.S. border to approximately the 19 degree latitude. It is approximately 8-10,000 feet high. These mountains are so high that they pose a problem for transportation and communications.
 
 

These mountains also contain deep valleys which are called barrancas. These canyons are deep riveted valleys which contain more vegetation than those in the U.S. Areas above 4,500 feet contain western yellow pine while areas below this point contain oak trees.

One of the barrancas is known as the Barranca del Cobre on the Urique River. This canyon rivals the Grand Canyon in grandeur and splendor; but it is different in that it contains more vegetation.

I.) City of Creel, Chihuahua

ii.) Los Mochis, Sinoloa
 
 

Mining is important along this range. Gold is mined in the City of Las Coloradas while silver is mined in the City of Batopilas, which is an important mining area in Mexico.
 
 
 
 

d. Altiplano of Mexico- The Plateau of Mexico is divided into two parts: 1) Mesa del Norte and 2) Mesa del Sur. Both sections of the plateau contain a series of inter-mountain basins called bolsones or bolson. Bolsa means pocket.

These basins vary in elevation between 3,000 feet to 7,500 feet in elevation. The plateau of northern Mexico resembles the mountain and basin area of the U.S.
 
 

Draw North-South cross-section of the Plateau of Mexico.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The basins in the Mesa del Norte have the following characteristics:
 
 

I.) they are large, shallow basins which have elevations between 2-3,000 feet;
 
 

ii.) they are characterized by internal drainage, and semi-arid conditions;

iii.) they have little agricultural activity, only found around ephemeral lakes, and
 
 

iv.) these basins are sparsely populated.
 
 

The basins south of the Mesa del Norte have the following characteristics:
 
 

I.) the bolsones are much higher in elevation;
 
 

ii.) the bolsones are much smaller in size;

iii.) they are characterized by external drainage;
 
 

iv.) they are very humid and very fertile soils and therefore have intensive agricultural activities;
 
 

v.) they have large population densities
 
 

vi.) they have the most important river system in Mexico which is the Rio Lerma- Santiago river system.
 
 

Diagram of the river system.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

e. Sierra Madre Oriental- This mountain range is thought to be an extension of the Rocky Mountains. The height of these mountains is similar to the Sierra Madre Occidental or between 8-10,000 feet in elevation.
 
 

The range forms a perfect barrier to the Central Plateau of Mexico. Consequently, the interior of the plateau is very arid. The mountain range does not have the large, deep canyons which are common in the Sierra Madre Occidental but the mountains do have deep valleys, with mountain spurs leading into the eastern coastal plain.
 
 

f. The Gulf Coast Plain of Mexico- This coastline begins north of Laredo and extends to a narrow point north of Vera Cruz and, then, widens to the coastal plain of the Yucatan Peninsula.
 
 

As one travels south from Texas, the coast plain increases in precipitation and vegetation, leading to the rainforest of southern Mexico. The area south of Matamoros, in the Linares area, has a Cfa climate and is characterized by extensive citrus groves; and as you travel towards Tampico, the climate changes to an Aw. It is here where large ranches are found. The main activity here focuses on fattening the cattle herds on the large grassy plains. The cattle are shipped to the markets of Mexico City and San Luis Potosi.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment # 15: The Land of Shake and Bake: Landcapes and Volcanoes in Mexico@, pages 14-16.
 
 

g. Volcanic Axis of Mexico- This is a zone of great height and ruggedness. The volcanoes are over 15,000 feet in elevation. These volcanoes have played an important part in the development of the religion, art, and culture of the numerous Indian tribes that inhabit Central Mexico.
 
 

Diagram of the Volcanic Axis of Central Mexico.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

h. The Balsas Depression- There is a deep depression south of the Volcanic axis. It is 300 kilometers or 180 miles long and 50 kilometers or 30 miles wide. Some say that this trough is connected to the San Andreas Fault. However, it is deep enough so that when you reach its bottom, you reach tropical conditions. The river that flows through it is the Balsas River. This river shows signs that indicate that it was captured by the eroding headwaters of another river along the coastline.
 
 

This trough is low enough for a lake to have existed prior to the capture of the river. The area is now characterized by large cattle ranches and by large gold mining activities. In fact, the area along the Balsas River has been

mined for gold since pre-Columbus time. It is the source of gold which was utilized by the Indians for ornamental purposes and the Spaniards for legal tender.
 
 

I. Sierra Madre del Sur- This mountain range begins in the State of Jalisco and extends southward along the coast of southwestern Mexico. This range is high and rugged, about as high as the Sierra Madre Occidental.

The range looks different because it contains pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks. The range is vulcanized but not to the extent of the volcanic axis. These mountains also contains spurs that extent to the sea, and these spurs, at times, result in coastal indentations. Acapulco is one of these valley depressions.
 
 

j. The Oaxaca Highlands- The east end of the mountains are known as the Sierra de Oaxaca. These highlands are old erosional surfaces which have reached maturity. The Highlands also contain El Valle de Oaxaca. This place is an important settlement site, and the valley is quite large. The valley also is the home of a number of Indian villages. The slopes of the mountainsides are steep, and it is due to this slope that the mountains became known as "The Highlands."
 
 

On the south side of the Highlands, we find a steep escarpment, and it is this escarpment that cuts the highlands from the lowlands at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. On the south side of this lowland area, we find the Chiapas Highlands. This area consists of two mountain ranges, with a trough (or valley of Chiapas) which is the principal area of settlement in this area.
 
 

The mountains, north of the Valley, are known as the Sierra de San Cristobal while the southern mountains are the Sierra de Chiapas. The latter mountains are made of igneous rock while the latter mountains are made of sedimentary material.
 
 

Now, let us look at the geology of Central America and the Caribbean islands.
 
 

Sierra de San Cristobal ----> Sierra de Cuchumantes ----> Sierra de Santa Cruz

----> Cayman Islands ----> Maestra Mts. of southeastern Cuba ----> Cordillera

Central of Hispaniola ----> Cordillera Central of Puerto Rico.
 
 
 
 

Sierra de Chiapas ----> Sierra de las Minas ----> Islas de la Bahia ----> Swan Islands ----> Blue Mts. of Jamaica ----> Peninsula of Hispaniola.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #16: "Yucatan if You Don't Wear Sunscreen: Tourism

in the Land of the Maya", pages 291-294.
 
 

C. Plant and Animal Domestication
 
 

1. Now and then in a few and physically favored areas of the world special culture hearths have burst forth and produced a great period of significant invention, from which ideas spread, and in part change as they spread afield.
 
 

2. These centers have been characterized by inventions which begin as small increments of insight, that is, variant ideas that gain acceptance under a favorable cultural climate. Variation builds on variation, and it may build up into a significantly new way and view of life.
 
 

3. These centers of major and sustained innovation have always been few in number. In fact, in the history of Man, diffusion of ideas from a few hearths have been the rule. One of these hearths of innovation is that of agriculture, where plant and animal domestication was of most importance.
 
 

4. The hearth or hearths of plant and animal domestication had to occur in area(s) where marked diversity of plants or animals were found or where there was a large reservoir of genes to be sorted out and recombined.
 
 

5. According to Carl O. Sauer, who wrote The Origins and Dispersal of Agriculture, this place had to be Southeast Asia because it met the specifications found above.
 
 

6. In Southeast Asia, planting and plant selection occurred through asexual (root) plant reproduction. That is, they reproduced through cuttings and rooting by man. Some of the domestic plants which lost their ability to reproduce by themselves are bananas, tumeric, taro, citrus fruits, and breadfruit, etc.
 
 

7. In the early history of agriculture, women were the cultivators while men fished and hunted for game.
 
 

8. The animals that were domesticate in Southeast Asia were the pig, dog, fowl, duck, and goose which were all household animals. As with the plants, the domestication may be attributed to the tender loving care of the women who managed the household.
 
 

9. The dog is generally given the place as "the oldest domesticated animal," the eldest companion of man.
 
 

10. Since wildness develops rapidly in young animals, only the helpless infants, wholly dependent on foster parents, form the strong attachment to the household in which they are raised. And, because infant animals require milk until they were domesticated, the only nurse-mother were women.
 
 

11. The wild pig Of Southeast Asia is the unquestioned ancestor of the domesticated pig. The wild pig was first domesticated in the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
 
 

12. The wild pigs now live in the jungles and forests of Southeast Asia, and they like to eat village plants and they do not avoid contact with man.
 
 

13. The domestic fowl comes from the jungle fowl of the area surrounding the Bay of Bengal. In Malaysia and India, the their traditional use for the fowl has been cock fighting and this has resulted in the selection of roosters with big bodies and chests. Another ceremonial selection is demonstrated by fowl with black color and black bones. In fact, blackness still has magical medicinal powers.
 
 

14. These animals were introduced to the West via the same way that domesticate plants such as bananas, taro, and tumeric and that is through Arabian sailors who were one of the earliest and best sailors in the world.
 
 

15. In western India, the following plants were domesticated:
 
 

I.) chick pea,

ii.) cucumber,

iii.) eggplant,

iv.) lettuce,

v.) hemp, and

vi.) radish.
 
 

16. In eastern Persia, the following plants were domesticated:
 
 

I.) lentils,

ii.) peas, and

iii.) bread wheat.
 
 
 
 

17. In Africa, especially in Ethiopia, the following plants were domesticated:
 
 

i.) sorghum,

ii.) millet,

iii.) barley, and

iv.) sesame seeds.
 
 

18. In Europe, the pig and dog were introduced via India. The date palm had its origins in Western India but it brought over to the Mediterranean region where it took hold; the olive and fig trees originated in the eastern Mediterranean area; and the grape originated in the Caucasus Mountains, within the Turkish-Iranian border.
 
 

Other plants that were domesticated in southern Europe include:
 
 

i.) garlic,

ii.) artichokes,

iii.) thyme,

iv.) oregano,

v.) rosemary, and

vi.) bay tree (leaves).

19. According to Carl O. Sauer, he placed the origin of plant and animal domestication in the New World in two distinct areas: 1)the Northwestern Corner of Columbia in South America, and 2) Central Mexico and Central America, otherwise known as Mesoamerica.

a.) The Arawak and the Carib Indians developed a root agriculture which is called the Cunuco Farming System, a farming system that is still utilized extensively in the Hispanic West Indies.
 
 

b.) In this farming system, the Indians would heap soil into a roundish mound that was knee-high and several feet in diameter. The basic plantings in the mounds were starchy root crops, chief of which were manioc or cassava, sweet potatoes, potatoes, arrow root, and peanuts. All of these plants were placed together in the same mound and they, jointly, provided protection from erosion.
 
 

c.) Other plants that were domesticated in Northwest Columbia were:
 
 

i.) strawberries,

ii.) yams,

iii.) cocoa,*

iv.) pineapple,* and

v.) tomatoes.
 
 

*These plants came from eastern Brazil.
 
 

d.) The rapid and catastrophic collapse of the Indian population in the West Indies and Northwest Columbia brought about by the Conquest resulted in the loss of numerous plant/vegetable varieties.
 
 

e.) The only domesticated animals in NW Columbia were the duck (patos caseros or household ducks) which were domesticated by the Muica Indians and the quinea pig which was raised for food. Other animals include the llama, alpaca, and vicuna, including a small dog which was raised for food.
 
 

20. In Mesoamerica, the domestication of plants focused on seed agriculture rather than root agriculture. Women selected the seeds by size, color and nutritional value; and therefore selectively chose the plants offsprings that they wanted to have in their farm plots.
 
 

a.) The dominant plants of Middle America were:
 
 

i.) maize,

ii.) beans,

iii.) squash.
 
 

b.) The planting these three crops, jointly, is comprised the farming system known as the milpa farming system. These three crops are known as the Trilogy of Crops. In his farming system, the farm plots are square or rectangular. Moreover, all three seeds are planted in one hole so that the first plant to sprout is the maize, then, the bean ivy which climbs the maize plant, followed by the squash plant which spreads its leaves throughout the plot, protecting the soil from the harsh sun rays and powerful raindrops.

c.) In this farming system, other crops which were domesticated were:
 
 

i.) pumpkins,

ii.) kidney beans,

iii.) navy beans,

iv.) lima beans,

v.) chile peppers,

vi.) bell peppers.
 
 

d.) Another farming system that developed in Mesoamerica was the chinampa farming system. This farming system consists of the milpa farming system and "floating gardens"
 
 
 
 

Draw Diagram of the chinampa farming system.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

e.) Chinampa cultivation refers to the use of artificial islands constructed of alternate layers of vegetation and mud in shallow freshwater lakes. Special features include the use of seed beds to shorten the growing season (permitting a continuous succession of crops in a single year); frequent fertilization by using mud from the lake bottom and lake vegetation, and perennial irrigation.
 
 

f.) Because this farming system resulted in two or three harvests per year, the Indian population of Mesoamerica grew rapidly and so that by 1519, the Indian population of Mesoamerica consisted of 25 million inhabitants. In addition, the chinampas were constructed in the form of narrow rectangles to facilitate bucket irrigation and natural seepage.
 
 

g.) The decline of the Indian population, after 1519 is as follows:
 
 

1532 -- 16.0 million

1548 -- 6.3 million

1568 -- 2.3 million

1580 -- 1.8 million

1608 -- 1.1 million.
 
 

D. Climates of Middle America
 
 

In 1932, Karl Sapper, a German climatologist, published his now famous textbook titled: The Climate of Middle America. In this text, he described the means by which temperatures decrease, in the tropics, as one climbs a mountain peak.
 
 

In his textbook, Dr. Sapper proposed the concept of altitutinal zonation and climate change as one climbs up the mountains in the tropic of Middle and South America.
 
 
 
 

Draw Diagram of Climate and Temperature Change.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The Temperature in the tropical environment (Tierra Cliente) is approximately 30 degree Celsius which is the normal temperature in the tropics. For every 1,000 meters (or 3,000 feet) in altitude, there is a -6 degree drop in temperature.
 
 
 
 

For example, if the average temperature at sea level (within the tropics is 30 degree Celsius, this temperature converts to 86 degree F. Let's see if this statement is correct by converting Celsius to F.
 
 
 
 

F = 9/5 C + 32

F = 9/5 (30) + 32

F = (9/5 x 30/1) + 32

F = 86 .
 
 

If at 3,280.8 feet in elevation, the temperature drops to 24 degrees Celsius, then
 
 
 
 

F = 9/5 (24) + 32

F = 75 .
 
 

ˆ change in temperature =-11 degrees temperature

change per 3,000 feet or 3.67 degree change per

1,000 feet.
 
 

If 30 degrees is the normal temperature at sea level in the tropics, then
 
 
 
 

T = 30 - 6H

T = 30 - 6(5)

T = 0 C
 
 
 
 

T = 30 - 6H

0 = 30 - 6H

30 = 6H

6 6

5M = H
 
 

In the Tierra Caliente, one will find bananas, cacao, rubber, and other tropical fruits;
 
 
 
 

SOUTH AMERICA
 
 

South America is the fourth large landmass in the world, with 7,000,000 square miles of land surface. Of the 7,000,000 square miles, 2,000,000 miles are not populated so that the population concentration of 47 persons per square mile is unevenly distributed. The continent extends from 13 north latitude to 55 degrees south latitude (or 4700 miles long in a north-south direction) and 35-80 degrees west longitude (or 3100 miles long in an east-west direction).
 
 

There are approximately 324,000,000 inhabitants in South America; and if we include the population of Middle America, the total population of Latin America is 488 million inhabitants, with a population growth rate of 1.8% per year.
 
 

The total population centers are along the mountains in the eastern coastline and, principally, in the mountains on the western coastline of the Pacific Ocean. In the Andes, the population concentrations have become too strong so that pressure on the land has lead to extreme erosion. In fact, the population concentrations in the Andes Mountains reach densities of 200 persons per square.
 
 

1.) Urbanization and ethnic Composition of South America: As I mentioned above, South America is settled around the fringes. The patterns are based on culture, attitude, and accidents of history. Spaniards always have had a predilection for communal life. To a Spaniard, a city represents culture, politics, and "where the action is." The population of all countries is highly nucleated. Cities such as Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro have populations over 8 million inhabitants. The growth of these cities has resulted in an encirclement of slums around the cities, which go by different names in the various countries. For example, in Lima approximately 1/4 of the population live in barridas; in Brazil slums are known as favelas; in Columbia as ranchos; and in Argentina as barrios.
 
 

The racial mix of South America is great:
 
 

A. Indios: Number and distribution of the Indians during the period of exploration --- played a significant element in the settlement of South America. In some areas, they form the dominant racial group such as in the Amazon Basin, Peru, and Bolivia. About 20 million pure Indians still remain unmixed in the large society of several countries. Being an Indian in many of these countries (as in Mexico) results in a bad situation because they are socially discriminated. They usually lead a life of misery, only elevated by an occasional religious ceremony and market shopping. To relief their troublesome lives, they use quinine and chicha which is made from decayed potatoes which are spat out of the mouth into a bowl. This ritual is a family affair; and yes, the is incidence of tuberculosis is very high throughout the Andes.
 
 

B. Europeans: These groups only account for a small percentage of the population in South America, except for Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Although they are out numbered in the other countries, they have held high government positions and establish the norm for aristocratic living.
 
 

C. Mestizos: Racial mix of Spanish and Indian cultures, this group forms approximately 85 to 90 percent of all people of Latin America. The mestizo is fundamentally the AMatrix of South America.@
 
 
 
 

D. Blacks: Blacks were brought into South America for the same reason as those in Middle America. The Indians of South America proved to be poor plantation workers. Generally, speaking, blacks are not found outside of the tropics. They live primary along the nose of Brazil, where they form at least 1/4 of the population. Also, they are found along the western shoreline of Columbia and Ecuador=s shoreline. The black culture has had its greatest impact on the music and cusine of these countries.
 
 

E. Zambos: Zambos live especially in Guyana and eastern Brazil.
 
 

2.) Physiography of South America consist of two parts: 1) The Andes Mountains which extend from the northern rim of Venezuela or Trinidad to La Tierra Del Fuego for approximately 4,500 miles and 2) the Brazilian Shield, including the Guiana Highlands.
 
 

The Andes Mountains:

Draw diagram of the mountain system:
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

A. The Andes also contain the highest mountains in the western hemisphere. In fact, the highest mountain in the Andes is Mt. Aconcagua (22,831 feet) which is located between Chile and Argentina, west of Santiago, Chile.
 
 

B. Adjacent to the highest mountain in the western hemisphere, we find one of the deepest trenches in the world, which is called the Atacama Deep, with a depth of -25,050 feet.

C. This area (the western coastline) of South America is very unstable, and it is the site of frequent earthquakes. The Incas understood earthquakes because their ruins still stand despite the many earthquakes since their construction.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #17: "Trail of Years: Historical Linkages Along the Inca Highway", pages 278-279.

D. The Highlands of South America
 
 

1.) The continental shield of South America is known as the Brazilian Highlands. The Brazilian Highlands is divided into two sections: a.) Highlands Proper, and b.) Guiana Highlands.
 
 

a.) The Brazilian Highlands Proper is the equivalent of the Canadian Shield in North America. This shield has never been glaciated to the extent that the North American shield has. Only isolated spots have been glaciated.
 
 

The Brazilian Highlands are a rugged, maturely dissected plateau that tilts to the west. The highest point is Pico de Bandeira, with an elevation of 9,400 feet. The Sierra do Mar rises along the coastline of Brazil from 0 to 3,000 feet. Other mountain ranges in the Brazilian Highlands include the Serra do Espingo (with an elevation of 6,000 feet) and Serra da Mantiqueira with 4,000 feet in elevation.
 
 

Another elevated plateau is the Parana Plateau which is formed by a lava fissure(s). It is very similar to the Columbia and Deccan Plateaus of the U.S. and India. Although this plateau is an integral part of the Brazilian Highlands, it is set apart because it is characterized by the various lava flows which cover over 100,000 square miles of southeastern Brazil and Paraguay.

Brazil's coffee soils are located in this plateau and they are famous for their fertility. These soils are known as the Terra Roxa soils. These soils are largely responsible for the large coffee plantations of Brazil.

Within the this plateau, we also find two great waterfalls:
 
 

1) Iquassu Falls - They are located between Argentina and Brazil, and
 
 

2) Guaira Falls - These falls are located between Paraguay and Brazil on the Parana River.

(With respects to falls, there is another very important fall in the South America, it is found in the nose of Brazil, and it is known as the Salto Paulo Alfonso in the Sao Francisco River.)
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #18:"Why You Have to Go to New York City to Get Your Go-Go Boots Shined: Brazilians on the Move", pages 282-284.
 
 

b.) The Guiana Highlands lie north of the Amazon River Basin. This area remains the least explored area of South America. The Highlands contains sedimentary rocks that have been uplifted to a height of 8,000 feet or more. The Guiana Highlands also has isolated tabular mesas or mountains, the biggest is Mt. Roraima, with an elevation of 9,212 feet.
 
 

In the 1920's, an American flyer, Jimmy Angel, accidentally discovered the world's highest waterfall --- Angel's Fall. It drops 3,212 feet from a flat plateau to the lower plains.
 
 

The Guiana Highlands are very important economically because they have large deposits of iron ore and bauxite (aluminum ore), and gold. At the foothills of the Highlands, along the Orinoco River Valley, we find two cities which are famous for the two ores that are mined nearby. For example, the City of Bolivar is a large iron and steel smelting city because Cerro Bolivar, located nearby, is the source of very large iron ore deposits while the City of Guyana, close to the delta of the Orinoco River, is famous for the bauxite ore that it processes into alumina (raw aluminum) mined nearby in the Highlands.

2.) Patagonia Region: In the South, we find an area which is known as Patagonia which means (Paton\Big Hoof). This name comes from the early Spanish explorers who, reputedly, saw large foot prints of a local Indian who had very large feet. When they saw his footprints, they exclaimed, "Mira, que paton!" or "Look, what a big-hoofed Man he is!"
 
 

Patagonia is also known as Argentina's Siberia by the local folks. This name is derived from the bleak winters, bitter temperatures, and semi-arid conditions which characterize the area during the months of June through July.
 
 

Draw diagram of Patagonia.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

The major rivers of this area are the Colorado and Negro Rivers. These rivers have deep flood plains which form canyons along the plateau. These flood plains are very important to the economy of the area because they provide protection from the severe, bitterly cold winds that sweep the area. In these deep canyons, fruit and sheep farming is carried out. In addition, these canyons also provide protection to cities, located along the rivers, from the bitter winds.
 
 

Although Patagonia is virtually empty of natural resources (as is most of Argentina), it does contain a moderate amount of petroleum which is found in the vicinity of Comodoro Rivadavia. Although oil deposits are found in the Gran Chaco area of Argentina and Paraguay, the area around Comodoro Rivadavia in the Patagonia region is the most important oil producing area in Argentina.

E. The Lowlands
 
 

1.) The Amazon Basin (1 million square miles) is an area drained by the world's greatest river which contains one of the world's densest hydrologic networks - some of which are as great as the Mississippi River and which empties 7 2 million cubic feet of freshwater per second or 20 % of the world's total freshwater. The water extends as far out as 75 miles into the open sea without becoming salty.

(Freighters.)
 
 

The gradient of this system is 2 2 inches per mile. Most of the topographic relief has not been done in the Amazon Basin, Most of the information of the basin's geomorphic features have been by explorers and travelers.
 
 

Three of the largest tributaries of the Amazon are the a.) Rio Negro, b.) Rio Madeira, c.) and Rio Tapajos. These rivers are larger than the Mississippi or Missouri Rivers in the U. S.
 
 

2.) The Orinoco River Floodplain is known as the Llanos region of South America. Within the Llanos, the central and northeastern portion of the Orinoco River are characterized by extensive grassy plains which have large ranching activities. Ranching activities in this area are possible because of the urban markets that are found nearby in the Andean Mountains of Venezuela.
 
 

3.) The Gran Chaco, which in the Guarani Indian (of Paraguay) language means HAPPY HUNTING GROUND, and the Pampas of Argentina are the two other extensive plains of South America. The Gran Chaco begins in Brazil at a place known as The Gran Pantanal. The term means The Great Swamp, and it is also known as the "Belly Button" of South America. This area was first discovered by the Jesuit Missionaries of Sao Paulo who called it a swamp because it was full of water and animal life. But, they soon found out that it drained very fast. As one travels south, the Gran Chaco becomes more arid until one reaches the northern frontier of Argentina. This whole area is very much like South Texas, and it is extensively devoted to cattle ranching and some wine production, especially in the vicinity of Cordoba, Argentina. Here, oases spring forth from the Andes, and they give rise to vineyards and sugar cane fields.
 
 

4.) The Pampas is one of the world's most productive regions. It is an extensive featureless plain, with one perceptible slope and extensive steppe grasslands. This area has a Cfa (Humid Subtropical Climate) but chernozem soils. These soils are extremely fertile and produce tremendous amounts of wheat, corn, soybeans, wines, wool, and beef and beef byproducts. Their fertility is also derived from the loess cover that blew from the Andes. (The Pampa is richly endowed with grain fields so that the area is known as the Bread Basket of South America.)
 
 

When the Spaniards first arrived this area was a plain that was covered by tall grass, and the Spaniards thought the region was characterized by a steppe climate. But, because they were lonesome for their native Spain, they planted oaks trees in the Buenos Aires area and to their surprise, the oak trees grew very tall and wide. Consequently, they developed considerable doubt about the prairie nature of the Pampas.
 
 

In fact, it was the Indians who destroyed the natural vegetative cover of the Pampas which originally had a forest cover. The Indians burned the forest in order to extend the foraging range of the rhea (a bird) which inhabited the western portions of the Pampas. Once the forest cover was eliminated, it never came back.
 
 

Nonetheless, the grasslands gave the soils an unequally high organic content, just as they did in the prairie areas of North America.
 
 

F. Precipitation Patterns:
 
 

Generally speaking, South America is a well-watered continent. For example, the Amazon Basin receives more than 80 inches of rainfall per year, thus, supporting a dense forest growth or rainforest. In addition, the whole northern coast is very rainy, except for an area of Venezuela's and Brazil's Horn, receiving more than the required amount of precipitation for a rainforest climate.
 
 

South of Brazil's nose, the air is forced to rise by the Serra do Mar, therefore continuing a rainy-tropical coastline of Brazil, with a rainfall averaging between 100 and 200 inches of rainfall per year.
 
 

The savanna areas of South America have a strong seasonal variation in rainfall patterns. No rainfall may flow for more than 5 months a year and during the second half of the year, rainfall is continuous as in a rainforest climate.
 
 

These savanna areas are sparsely populated. In fact, there are more people in the desert areas of the world than in the savanna areas of the world. The peripheral areas of the savanna regions are used for pasture because grass is the only vegetation that will survive the severe drought cycle.
 
 

The arid areas of South America are found along the Peruvian-Chilean coastline --- along the Atacama Desert, which is the world's driest area. In fact, some weather stations have never experienced rainfall since their inception. However, the blessing of this area is the plentiful areas of sodium nitrate deposits that are found here in the Atacama Desert.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #19: "Where Not to Be in Raincoat Sales: High and Dry in the Atacama Desert", pages 276-277.
 
 

Patagonia is the second area of aridness which is the result of its leeward location with respect to the Andes. The only thing that benefits Patagonia is the fact that it lies sufficiently south so that the precipitation that does fall is quite effective for sheep ranching and fruit farming..
 
 

The Polygon of Drought, in northeastern Brazil, is the third region of extensive aridness. Precipitation patterns are quite erratic here. The vegetation in this area is called the Caatinga which is comparable to our semi-arid vegetation of cactus and small thorny bushes. During the early part of the 20th century, long droughts were recorded and people in this area reverted to cannabism. This, is course, is not a common occurrence in our present times.
 
 

G. The Individual Countries:
 
 

Venezuela
 
 

1.) The name "Venezuela" comes from the Spanish word for "Little Venice". The name was derived when the early Spanish explorers saw Indian huts on stilts on the shallow lake of Maracaibo. These huts inspired the Spaniards to call the new land "little Venice".
 
 

2.) Petroleum was found in this lake during the 1920's, and it has continued to flow since then. Moreover, these oil fields produce more than 1 million barrels of oil daily, or slightly 2/3's of the national output is produced in this area.
 
 

3.) There are over 4,500 oil derricks on Lake Maracaibo, and these wells have allowed Venezuela to produce over 4 percent of the world's total crude oil supply.
 
 

4.) Lake Maracaibo is located in a lowland area which is surrounded by mountains. These mountains effectively cut the trade winds from the lowland so that the resulting climate is characterized by high temperatures and high humidity, making the lowland a very unpleasant place to live.
 
 

5.) The capital of Venezuela is Caracas, and it is located approximately 3,000 feet above sea level. Caracas fills a narrow valley 15 miles wide by 30 miles long, and it has a population of 3.3 million inhabitants.
 
 

6.) The elevation of Caracas gives the city a temperate climate which makes it spring- like year round. Comparatively, the city's port of La Guaira is located at sea level, only 6 miles away from the capital. The city of La Guaira, however, sits on a desert coastline, and it is extremely hot, dry, and unpleasant port.
 
 

7.) In the Guiana Highlands enormous iron-ore reserves have been found south of Ciudad Bolivar, in the Cerro de Bolivar. Huge deposits of bauxite have also been found in the Highlands, and they are now being exploited, near the city of Guayana, which is the major city for the refining of aluminum and ---to some extent --- iron ore.
 
 

8.) The remaining Llanos is largely devoted to cattle ranching.
 
 

Columbia
 
 

1. The mountains of Columbia are much higher and larger than the mountains of Venezuela, and while both countries have a variety of climates, Columbia has more of the temperate or cool upland and highland type.
 
 

2. Although both countries have populations that are predominantly mestizo, Columbia's mestizo population is twice as large. The population of Columbia was estimated to be 37.4 million while the population of Venezuela was 23 million in 1997.
 
 

3. Most of Columbia's population is concentrated in the highland valleys of the Andes. The largest city is the capital city of Bogota, with a population of

5.6 million inhabitants.
 
 

4. Bogota is situated at an elevation of 8500 feet above sea level, and it therefore has a cold climate. The city's monthly average temperature range is between 57 degrees Fahrenheit to 59 degrees Fahrenheit.
 
 

5. The second largest city is the City of Medellin, with a population of 1.7 million, is located at an elevation of 5,500 feet is known for its textile mills and more importantly by coffee plantations, which produce some of the world's most flavorful coffees. The coffee is exceptionally favorable because the mountain soils are volcanic, and the coffee trees grow under the cover of tall trees on the region's steep slopes. Consequently, Medellin has become the country's major producer and exporter of coffee.

Coffee is now Columbia's main export item, accounting for 59% of sales abroad in 1986. However, the Andean coca leaves or cocaine accounts for Columbia's leading unofficial export to the United States.
 
 

6. The City of Cali, on the Cauca River, has a population of 1.8 million, andit is the focal point where tobacco and sugar are produced and cattle are raised for the larger cities of Columbia.

7. Another major export of Columbia is petroleum which was first discovered in large portions in the Arauca area of northeastern Columbia, but a greater field was discovered in 1991 in the Cusiana area of east central Columbia. Both fields allow Columbia to become a major exporter of oil in South America.
 
 

8. A major source of coal is located in the Guajira Peninsula which is adjacent to the Maracaibo Lowland area. The mining activity centers in the Cerrejon District which is one of the largest bituminous coal mines in the world.
 
 

9. The coastal Columbian area along the Pacific coastline consists of a rainforest climate and vegetation. In fact, one station in the mountains on the Pacific coast reports over 400 inches of rain per year. The coastal area is sparely populated, and it has a large number of blacks who live in the city of Buenaventura and in other small coastal villages. The economy along this portion of Columbia focuses on commercial agriculture, especially cocoa and banana plantations.

10. The Caribbean coastal area is highly populated, with three major cities: Barranquilla (975,000), Cartagena (525,000) which is reputed to be the control center for Columbia's huge illegal export trade in cocaine and marijuana, and Santa Marta which is

has an airport which is utilized for drug transhipments.
 
 

Educator
 
 

1. The country of Ecuador is the second smallest country in South America, with a population of 10,500,000. The country 's population is divided into four parts: 1) Mestizo (40%), 2) Indian (45%), Blacks (7%), and European (8%).
 
 

2. The capital of Ecuador is Quito which is located on the equator and has a tierra fria climate. The largest city in Ecuador is not Quito but Quayaquil (1,225,000).
 
 

3. Ecuador is divided into three physiographic parts: 1) the Andes, 2) El Oriente, 3) the coastal zone.
 
 

4. The Andes form two parallel north-south ranges. Crest elevations are very high, with some volcanic peaks reaching heights of 15,000-20,000 feet; it is here in the Andes where the majority of the people live and where the countryside is dominated by minifundia.
 
 

5. El Oriente, which is located east of the Andes, is the sparsely populated area which has a rainforest cover, but the rainforest is quickly disappearing because of large scale lumbering. In fact, 1/3 of the rainforest in the Oriente is already gone. Large oil deposits have been found in this area and the oil is piped over the Andes to Port of Emeraldas. Presently, Ecuador is the second, next to Venezuela, largest oil producing country in South America.
 
 

6. The Coastal Zone consists of two parts: a.) belt of low lying hills which are utilized for the production of coffee, rice, and cotton; and b.) the lowlands which produce bananas (making Ecuador the world's largest banana exporter) and cacao.
 
 

Peru
 
 

1. Peru is the third largest country in South America. It has a population of 22,000,000 inhabitants, and it is the heart of the Incas Empire. The capital city is Lima (4.5 million) which is located along the desert coast of western Peru; and its port is the City of Callao. In this country, the largest segment of the population consists of Indians.
 
 

2. As with Ecuador, it's national territory is divided into three parts: 1) the Andes, 2) El Oriente, and 3) the Coastal Desert Zone.
 
 

3. The Andes: The Andes occupies 1/3 of the national territory and contain the majority of the Indian population who live in nucleated cities such as Ayacucho and Cuzcos --- the ancient Inca capital --- and villages. (Manchu Picchu). However, this region is not as important as the coastal zone, except for the mines which provide foreign revenues which are used, in turn, to buy food at the international market. The leading metals are copper, lead, silver, and zinc, with the largest mining activities centered at Cerro de Pasco.
 
 

Because the western cordillera is so tall, it prohibits air flow into the Altiplano; consequently, a cold steppe/desert climate dominate the Altiplano. Therefore, agriculture is limited to subsistence farming in areas adjacent to the inter- mountain lakes; and the Indians only grow potatoes, corn, and barley.

Unfortunately, the caloric intake of the Andean Indians is insufficient for proper growth and development of the children who inhabit the mountains.
 
 

4. El Oriente (The East): The Andean slopes (also known as the montana) contain rainforest vegetation. Except for oil drilling operations throughout the Oriente, this region is sparsely populated and unexplored. To the north of the Oriente, the focal point is Iquitos which looks to the east instead of the west. Oil is found in the vicinity area north of Iquitos, and it is shipped by a pipeline to the coastal city of Bayovar.
 
 

5. The Coastal Desert Zone: The coastal fringe contains approximately 40 oases that are distributed all along the arid coastline. The irrigated agriculture produces cotton, sugar, rice, vegetables, fruits, and wheat. The cotton and sugar are important export products while the other products are growth mostly for the domestic market. However, the surplus farm production is too scanty to give rise to sizable cities supporting themselves by agricultural marketing, processing, and services.
 
 

The coastal plain of Peru is one of the driest in the world. This dry climate is a result of the von Humboldt or Peruvian Current which provides the country a bountiful return in fish and quano which comes from rookeries which are found all along the coastline.
 
 

Bolivia
 
 

1. Because Bolivia has no coastline to surpass the low productivity of the Andean communities, it is the poorest nation in South America. Bolivia's population is approximately 7,000,000 inhabitants. The majority (50%) are Indians while Mestizos comprise 35 percent of the population.
 
 

Bolivia, like Peru and Ecuador, is occupied by a population which is more than half pure Indian. Much of Bolivia was included within the limits of the Inca Empire, and the Quechua Language is still the common language of many Bolivians.. In the northern part of the Altiplano, around Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo, live the descendants of the pre- Inca civilization whose language is AYMARA.
 
 

The Aymaras form a distant and important part of the Bolivian population. The Anthropologist Weston La Barre reported that Awhile the Quechua is docile, submissive, and obedient, the Aymara is hard, vindictive, bellicose, rebellious, egotistical, cruel, and jealous of his liberty.@ But, if these people are hostile in their dealings with people of Spanish origin, this attitude is not without cause. The Aymaras have been defending their lands and their way of living for centuries. Conquered first by the Incas, then the Spaniards, they have been treated with cruelty and forced to accommodate themselves to the wishes of outsiders. Although the Aymaras, being mostly illiterate and unable to speak the Spanish language, have had little or nothing to say about the political and economic policies of Bolivia until recently. They nevertheless make up the overwhelmingly majority of the farmers, the herders, and the miners of the country.
 
 

The Aymaras have preserved their ancient customs and their language in spite of conquests. The first step in the development of the Inca Empire around the its capital, Cuzco, was the conquest of the Titicaca Basin. Yet, this was the only area in which the Incas were unable t implant the Quechua language. After the Spanish conquest, the Aymaras were forced to labor in the silver mines of Potosi and other places. Whatever hard work there was to be done, the Aymaras were the ones who did it. Yet, the conqueror were never successful in separating them from their lands. To be sure, the Titicaca Basin was divided into large, private estates owned by people of Spanish descent, but the Indian villages continued to occupy their lands on communal basis, paying the landowners rent. The owners lived elsewhere, some in Cochabama, some in La Paz, some even in Europe, leaving overseers to collect the rents.
 
 

2. Bolivia has two capitals. La Paz, the de facto capital, sits at an altitude of 12,000 feet. It contains all of the governmental functions except for the Supreme Court which resides in Sucre which is the legal capital of the country.
 
 

3. Bolivia is a land-lock country which lost its window to the Pacific in disastrous conflict with Chile, then, it lost Acre to Brazil, and 55,000 acres of its Gran Chaco territory to Paraguay. The lost of these territories have created a disastrous situation for Bolivia because it lost its access to the sea and potential mineral resources that its former territories now have. Thus, because it has no coastline that may surpass the low productivity of its Andean communities, it is the poorest country in South America.
 
 

4. In Bolivia, the Andean mountains broaden until they reach the widest width of approximately 450 miles. They are also very tall and arid as in Peru. Over 2/3's of Bolivia's population is employed in subsistence agriculture which is done in tierra fria conditions. The Indians therefore grow potatoes, corn, and barley.
 
 

5. With respect to natural resources, the City of Oruro is the center of the important mining community of the Altiplano. A range of low hills, about 4 square miles in area and rising some 1,200 feet above the general level of the Altiplano, contains ores of both silver and tin. During the colonial period, this district was one of the chief sources of silver, and Oruro,

located at the eastern base of the hills, became a town of considerable importance. Here, in the City of Oruro, we find Bolivia=s first Tin Smelting Plant. The other famous tin mining town is Unica. In fact, the rich tin ores between Oruro and Unica were discovered at the end of the nineteenth century.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #20:"The Tin Men and Women: Mining in Bolivia", pages

288-290.
 
 

Tin mining is not the only mining activity in the Eastern Cordillera. Bolivia has about 14 percent of the world=s reserves of antimony, and about 2 percent of the world=s reserves of tungsten. It also mines lead, zinc, copper, gold, and silver.
 
 

In 1544, the Spanish conquerors of Peru in their restless search for El Dorado discovered the Cerro Rico, a conical mountain which stands above the Puna surface of the Eastern Cordillera. The top of this mountain reaches 15,680 feet above sea level, and the altitude of its base, where the city of Potosi was founded, is 13,780 feet. The bulk of the mountain is made up of one of richest ore bodies known anywhere in the world-- an ore so rich that it not only contains rich deposits of silver but tin, bismuth, and tungsten. In 1554, however, the Spaniards wanted silver, for tin was then much mor cheaply supplied to European sources, and bismuth and tungsten had no known uses.
 
 

Out of the mountain, between its discovery and the beginning of the seventeenth century, came about one half of all the silver produced in the world during those 56 years. The Aroyal fifth@ which was poured into the Spanish treasury played vital role in shaping the course of European history.
 
 

6. In the Oriente, Bolivia's population is sparse, but its cocaine industry is booming, but besides this illegal activity, cattle ranching and oil exploration are the most important economic activities.
 
 

Chile
 
 

1. Chile extends for 2,500 miles along the western coastline of South America, but is approximately 90 miles wide, on the average, and barely 150 miles wide. It capital is Santiago, and country it has a total population of approximately 14,000,000 inhabitants.
 
 

Chile is mestizo a mestizo country. Its population includes none of the profound racial divisions found in the lands farther north. Only about 5 percent of the population remains pure Indian while Europeans form approximately 30 percent of the population. The remaining 65 percent of the population is mestizo.
 
 

2. Economically, Chile may be divided into three parts: 1) the arid north, 2) the Central Mediterranean sector, and 3) the southern Marine West Coast sector.
 
 

3. Northern Chile- The northern third of Chile consists of the Atacama Desert which consists of the driest place on earth. It is known as the Atacama Desert. The wealth of the Atacama lies in a series of bolsones. These bolsones contain valuable caliche which is composed of sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, and a variety of other salts that include iodine salts.
 
 

Sodium nitrate was only a curiosity until some found use for it. According to the story, a German who was living in Chile in 1809 threw some handfuls of sodium nitrate on his garden and was amazed at the luxuriant growth of his plants. For the world=s leached or heavily overworked soils, one of the pressing needs was for a fertilizer that would replace the nitrogen. The sodium nitrate of the Atacama began to find markets in the Cotten Belt of the United States, in the soils of low natural fertility in Europe, and in the heavily overworked soils of Egypt. In 1831, a shipment of 110 tons of nitrate was sent to England, where it quickly found favor. By 1860, a thriving mining industry had been established in the Atacama.
 
 

Sodium nitrate, moreover, which were used also for the production of explosives, but with the discovery synthetic nitrates, the industry declined considerably.

4. Nonetheless, another very important natural resource is found here. It is copper which is mined near the City of Chuquicamata. The mine is the largest copper mine in the world.

In fact, Chile is the leading exporter of copper in the world bar none.
 
 

5. The most important cities in the desert coastline are Arica and Antofagasta. While the two cities serve as port cities to land-lock Bolivia, Antofagasta also serves as the port for nitrates and copper as well as a copper-smelting center for the copper that is shipped abroad.
 
 

6. Middle Chile- The middle portion of Chile is the most important economically because this is where most of the people live. In central Chile, especially in the northern portion of central Chile, haciendas dominate the landscape. Here, wheat, corn, grapes, fruits, and vegetables are the main, irrigated crops while beef and beef byproducts are the important export items.
 
 

Surface Features
 
 

The easternmost part of central Chile is dominated by the high Andean mountains that culminate with the highest mountain in the western hemisphere, Mt. Aconcagua which has an elevation of 22,835 feet. In addition, the mountains in this area also have snow lines averaging between 14,700 feet to 11,500 feet in the vicinity of Santiago, the capital of Chile.

The coastal areas of middle Chile are characterized by a zone of coastal plateaus and terraces. The highest elevations occur in the north where the flat-topped surfaces reach height of 7,000 feet above sea level while in the southern part of middle Chile (say, Conception, Chile) the highest elevations are between 1,000 to 2,000 feet. Along the coastline, the cliffs rise from the edge of the water, and there are no harbors except where spurs of the mountains provide partial protection from the prevailing westerly winds.
 
 

Between the Andes and the coastal mountains there is a structural basin of varying width which is known as the Central Valley. This valley is divided, in the north, by an Andean spur that divides the valley into two separate valleys. However, between Santiago and Concepcion, these basins are continuous, arranging between 30 and 50 miles in width. Santiago itself is situated at an elevation of 1,700 feet above sea level while the Central Valley is much lower in elevation around Concepcion, with an elevation between 900 and 300 feet above sea level. (This city has an active iron and steel industry that depends on local coal and iron supplies that are found in its vicinity. It also has hydroelectric power, and uranium ore for nuclear power.
 
 

Climate and Vegetation
 
 

The most distinctive feature of middle Chile is its climate: the Mediterranean Climate. This climate exists between 30 and 36 degrees south latitude. Here, one finds a transition between the desert and the continuously rainy climate of southern Chile; and it is here where we find the most important economic region of Chile where the dominant feature is the hacienda system. Haciendas were land grants given to influential people by the Crown of Spain. The descendents of these land holdings are primarily interested in raising cattle and horses. As a result, they allocated small portions of their haciendas to crops such as alfalfa, oats, clover, and grapes for wines, and wheat. (Here, in this part of Chile transhumance is practiced extensively.) With respect to wheat, Chile is the only country in Latin America in which wheat occupies more area than maize. In Chile, bread made from wheat rather than maize is eaten by all classes of people. To supplement their diet, the employees of the haciendas are allowed to use small bits of land to raise potatoes, beans, peas, lentils, onions, artichokes, and peppers.
 
 

There are small areas where vineyards are also grown within the haciendas. In fact, throughout middle Chile vineyards occupy at least part of the land on each hacienda, allowing Chile to be an important wine producer in South America.

Southern Chile- South of Rio Bio Bio, the Mediterranean climate gives way to the Marine West Coast climate. Here, instead of large haciendas, we find small medium-size farms that have been created on cleared land; and in Southern Chile a rainy climate and forests dominate the landscape.
 
 

In southern Chile, however, the Andes are not so high as they are in the north, and the passes through them are much lower. In this region, where the rocky slopes permit, the dense forest reaches the snow line, leaving no intermediate zone of alpine pastures for the summer grazing of cattle and sheep. And, south of 35E S latitude, the Andes become vulcanized, with many snow-capped summits. Their appearance is remarkably similar to that of the great volcanoes of the Pacific Northwest in the United States such as Mt. Hood or Mt. Rainier----except that these volcanoes are still active.
 
 

Human Settlement
 
 

The Araucanian Indians were the most numerous inhabitants of southern Chile during the Spanish period of exploration. This Indian tribe, along with the Seminoles of Florida, have the distinction among all the Indian tribes of the Americas, of never having been conquered by force of arms. They were conquered, little by little, by contacts with the white man=s civilization. Even today, they still occupy a small area of southern Chile.
 
 

The first serious attempts to establish settlements in southern Chile was taken by foreign immigrants in the decades which followed 1850. Small groups of Germans established their farming communities near the cities of Valdivia, Puerto Montt and Puerto Varas. Today, they number around 50,000 in all of Chile, including Chilean-born descendants of the immigrants; and many of the German-Chileans now reside in villages throughout southern Chile or in farming communities which are chiefly devoted to the raising of livestock and to a lesser degree to the production of food crops.
 
 

Approximately, 40% of the cattle are used for meat rather than dairy industry. Because of the absence of pastures in the Andes, transhumance is not practiced in southern Chile, but there is a more or less regular movement of herds through the relatively low passes to the oases of northern Patagonia in Argentina.
 
 

Less than 20% of the total area of southern Chile is devoted to food crops. On this area, however, is produced an important share of Chile=s wheat crop----mostly soft wheat which is adapted to the rainy conditions of the climate. In addition to the wheat, other crops including potatoes, oats, apple, and hay. In spite of the abundance of trees, some of which could be used for lumber, Chile does not have a large lumber industry. Lumber is still imported while the forests of the south are burned to make room for pastures or crops. The woods of the forests are utilized at only a few places where nearby markets create a demand around Valdivia, for instance, where there are furniture factories, or on the island of Chiloe where there is a boat-building industry. Otherwise, the wood is used only for fuel.
 
 

7. In addition, in the southern half of central Chile, beef and beef byproducts predominate the landscape while fruits such as peaches, pears, plums, vegetables, and grains are the dominant cash crops.

8. Punta Arenas, in the south, is a fishing port and has hydroelectric potential.
 
 

Argentina
 
 

1. Argentina is the second largest country in South America with the second largest population of all other countries, except for Brazil. The country contains 1.1 million square miles and 33 million inhabitants, which are mostly European of Spanish, French, and Italian descent. Its capital is Buenos Aires (12.2 million), but most of its population lives in the most fertile area of Argentina, namely, the Pampas. This area is the most intensely utilized area of Argentina. The whole area is dominated by large estancias (latifundia) that raise thousands of cattle, sheep, and pigs for market. They also raise alfalfa, wheat, corn, and other grains for animal and human consumption. All of these products are shipped to market via the hundreds of railway miles that dot the countryside. Most of the industry in the Pampas focuses on manufacturing of agricultural products such as vegetable oils, beef hides, woolen clothes, and fruit products.
 
 

Pocket Activity Guide Assignment #21: "Don't Cry for Me Argentina: You Can't be Pompous about the Pampas", pages 308-311.
 
 

2. Outside of the Pampas, the population of Argentina is sparse and agricultural activities focus on pastoralism while sheep ranching and fruit farming are dominant features in the Patagonia region.

3. In the area known as the "Mesopotamia of Argentina" or "Entre Rios" or "Between Rivers", the area is primary utilized for agriculture, mainly corn, cotton, and wheat. Here, flax is grown for flaxseed oil and linen while yerba mate, a local tea, is grown. Another product of this region is the quebracho-tree extract which is utilized for tanning leather.
 
 

4. In the north of the Mesopotamia region, Paraguay and Argentina are currently building the world's largest hydroelectric dam; it is called the Yacyreta Dam which is located on the Parana which is designed to enhance the economic potential of this area. This dam is even larger than the Itaipu Dam which is located upstream on the Parana River.
 
 

5. Important cities outside the Pampas include:
 
 

a. Tucuman - it is known for its sugar industries,
 
 

b. Mendoza - it is known for its vineyards,
 
 

c. Cordoba - second largest city in Argentina and known for its excellent wines.
 
 

Brazil
 
 

1. Brazil is the largest country in South America (3.3 million square miles, and it ranks fifth in size. It is smaller than Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. Its population size is larger than another state in South America, with 156 million inhabitants as of 1997.
 
 

2. Its population is very diverse. Brazil has approximately 17 million blacks, 70 million of mixed-race, with African, European, and Indian ancestry, and 70 million of European ancestry. Japanese immigrants recently have joined the ranks and they live in farming communities throughout southern Brazil.
 
 

3. Brazil can be divided into six regions: 1) The Northeast, 2) The Southeast, 3) Sao Paulo, 4) The South, 5) The Interior, and 6) The Amazonian North. We shall now review briefly each of these areas.
 
 

4. The NORTHEAST is the cultural heart of Brazil. This is the oldest and poorest part of Brazil. The economy is essentially commercial agriculture, with an emphasis on sugar cane. The Portuguese quickly imported African salves to work the fields. Today, the region still retains the same economy while the majority of the people remain subsistence farmers, with cattle herding a way of life.
 
 

The major cities are Recife which is the oldest city in the region and San Salvador which is the area's most economically diversified city, with a major petrochemical complex in its vicinity.

5. The SOUTHEAST consists of the State of Bahia, Espirito Santo, and Minas Gerais. This area is richly endowed with gold, bauxite, manganese, nickel, and many precious and semi-precious stones. The State of Minas Gerais actually means General Mines. The name of this state derives from the more than 100 different mines that are found throughout the state. In fact, the lure of gold is what brought people to this area. But, it is iron ore (around Lafaiete) that now makes this area, one of the most productive areas in Brazil. Brazil now ranks second, next to Russia, in the total production of iron and steel, and BeloHorizonte, the Capital, is the leading metallurgical center of Brazil. Volta Redonda, close to Rio de Janeiro, is very large iron smelting plant.
 
 

6. Sao Paulo is the center of a very important agricultural region where coffee plantations, known as fazendas, are very important commodity. Brazilian farmers also grow large numbers of citrus fruits (for orange concentrate) and soybeans throughout this area. The City of Sao Paulo is the leading manufacturing city in Brazil, with a very active automobile industry at its industrial heart.
 
 

7. THE SOUTH consists of the southern states of Parana, Santa Catarina, and RioGrande do Sul. This area is characterized by numerous farming communities which were settled by European immigrants, especially Germans, Italians, and Portuguese farmers. The staple crops are corn, rye, potatoes, dairying, vineyards.
 
 

Main industrial activity focuses on Tubarao where South America's single largest steel- making plant opened in 1983. It obtains its coal from the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. Although this industrial activity is central to the economy of this region, it economic potential has not been reached in spite of the Itaipu Dam and its promises of economic prosperity.
 
 

8. THE INTERIOR focuses on the region surrounding the capital city of Brasilia which was deliberately located in the savanna region of The Interior. Unfortunately, this area is not very fertile, and it has proven to be a poor area for ranching and farming, with overgrazing as an imposing problem to the area.
 
 

9. THE AMAZONIAN NORTH was the scene of the great rubber boom at the turn of the century, but with the discovery of synthetic rubber, the industry ended rapidly in 1910. This area contains the world's largest rainforest reservoir, and it is now receiving a massive infusion of immigrants from the coast, immigrants who seek gold and cheap land, just for the clearing. Unfortunately, the clearing of the land has lead to a great environmental catastrophe in which the rainforest is being destroyed at alarming rates which may lead to global warming and desertification of vast areas of the world.
 
 

Today, it has a major industrial project. The first is the Grande Carajas Project in eastern Para State, a huge industrial scheme which focuses on one of the world's largest deposit of iron ore in the Serra dos Carajas hills. In addition to the project, the Tucurui Dam on the Tocantins River emphasizes the exploitation of bauxite, manganese, and copper which are also found in the area.