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This study guide will assist the student in preparing for the final exam. This study guide is not comprehensive. The student will need to explore these concepts further using their text book.
Conflict theory is a theoretical framework which sees society as divided by inequality and conflict.
The objectivity of social problems refers to the the notion that there are societal conditions that induce material or psychological suffering for certain segments of the population. Those conditions are, therefore, social problems in any social setting.
The person-blame approach to understanding social problems is based on the assumption that social problems result from the pathologies of individuals rather than from social influences.
Social issues are political debates involving moral judgements about how people should live.
Social movements are an organized effort to encourage or discourage some dimension of social change.
Social policy is a formal strategy to shape some aspect of social life.
Social problems are societally induced conditions that harms any segment of the population, and acts and conditions that violate the norms and values found in society. Eitzen contends that the distribution of power in society is a major source of social problems.
Structural functional theory is a theoretical framework that sees society as a complex system of interrelated parts that work together.
The subjective nature of social problems argues that what is or is not a social problem is a matter of definition. Thus, social problems are defined by the audience and vary by time and place.
Symbolic interactionist theory is a theoretical framework that sees society as the product of individuals interacting with one another.
System-blame explanations to social problems are based on the assumption that social problems result from social conditions. Proponents of the system-blame approach might advocate prison education programs to improve the literacy of those who have been incarcerated.
Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of property, guided by the seeking of maximum profits. Capitalism is on of two methods that industrial societies use to organize their economic activities. Capitalism is based on the following assumptions.
1. Private Ownership of Property
Individuals are encouraged to own not only private possessions, but the capital to buy more possessions (see Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1998:356-57).
2. Pursuit of Maximum Profit
Individuals are encouraged to maximize their personal gains. Seeking personal gain is morally and socially appropriate. It's the position of Adam Smith that this has many beneficial consequences for Americans.
3. Free Competition
This is the element that keeps out profit seeking in check. In a competitive society, if one agent raises prices too high, then others will step in to sell goods more cheaply. Fraud is thus weeded out and the market is stabilized.
4. Laissez-faire Government
Laissez-faire government is a government that does not intervene in the economy.
Democracy is a political system in which the majority will prevail if there is equality before law and if decisions are made to maximize the common good.
Interlocking directorates are the linkages between corporations that results when an individual serves on the board of directors of two companies (a direct interlock) or when two companies each have a director on the board of a third company (an indirect interlock).
Oligarchy is a political system that is ruled by a few. Eitzen & Baca-ZInn (2003:38) quote Bernard Sanders as saying "Oligarchy refers ... to the fact that decisions that shape our consciousness and effect our lives are made by a very small and powerful group of people." In the opinion of Rep. Sanders, the U.S. is increasingly an oligarchy.
Power is the ability to get what one wants from someone else despite resistance.
The power elite are a few very wealthy individuals who control the economy, production, and the political system. C. Wright Mills in The Power Elite (1956) points to three social structures where power is centered. The first of these structures is the economy. Boards of directors of transnational corporations dictate policy to the capitalist world. The second seat of power lies in the political apparatus of the United States, which primarily consists of the President and his close advisors (who Mills calls the "men of higher immorality"). The third seat of power rests in the hands of the United States military (who Mills called "the warlords.")
Power associated with these three social structures is telescoped by the linking of major institutions, which have become dominated by two or three hundred giant corporations (Mills, 1956:5). Power and control continually experience centralization. Other social institutions like the church, the family, and education are shaped by decisions of the executive, the economy, and the military.
Socialism is an economic system in which the means of production are owned by the people for their collective benefit. There are five principles of socialism (as presented by Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1998:358-59)follow:
1. True Socialism must Be Democratic
Representatives of a socialist state must be answerable to the wishes of the public who is ultimately making the decisions and whose interests are ultimately being served.
2. It Must Be Egalitarian
There must be equality of opportunity for all and decision-making should not be hierarchical. Equality opportunity for the self fulfillment of all; rather than hierarchy in decision making; and equality in sharing the benefits of society.
3. Socialism Is a Community
Cooperation should characterize social relationships, not competition.
4. Public Ownership of the Means of Production
The people own basic industries, financial institutions, utilities, transportation, and communication
5. Socialism is Efficient Planning
Society should direct social activities to meet common goals. The society is organized to provide at the least possible individual and collective cost. The goal is serving the public, not making profit.
Eitzen & Baca-Zinn (2003:42) begin from a position that the wealthy have significant advantages in society. Some advantages are obvious (e.g., their financial power, Laws that favor business, etc.). Other advantages are more structural and more subtle.
Eitzen & Baca Zinn (2003:42) contend that the choices people make are limited by Systemic imperative. They are economic and social constraints placed on political decision makers. They promote the status quo. A culture will develop norms and expectations that what exists is no doubt good because it has existed for a long time. Expectations can become so fixed that few people even see a need to question them. The character of these social institutions is to a large extend shaped by those who wield power within the political economy. They are also the beneficiary of these social arrangements.
Absolute poverty is a condition of life so degraded by disease, illiteracy, malnutrition, and squalor as to deny its victims the basic necessities of life. It is a condition of deprivation so great as to threaten survival.
In 1914, 70% of the worlds population lived in colonies. Colonialism is the process by which some nations enrich themselves through political and economic control and exploitation of other nations. The colony has its labor and natural resources exploited by the more powerful nation. The culture of the country is often seen as primitive by the colonizer. Local production is often for the export market, and does not benefit the local population. Therefore, it is possible for a colonized country to produce abundant food while, simultaneously, its citizens go hungry.
Dependency theory is an approach to explaining global stratification that argues the lack of industrial development in the least industrialized nations is caused by the industrialized nations domination the world economy.
Modern demographic transition is a three-stage pattern of population change that occurs as societies industrialize and urbanize. It is one of the most popular population theory is demographic transition (Weeks, 1996:77-80). It is a model that explains population dynamics of European / American industrial societies. It traditionally is presented in three phases.
a. Phase One:
High birth and high death rates characterize the first phase of Demographic Transition. Examples of nations that are in the first phase are Ethiopia, Angola, and Nigeria.
b. Phase Two:
High birth rates also characterize the second phase of demographic transition, but so do low death rates. Death rates decline because of better health conditions, improved medicine, better food, etc. Nations that are in the second phase include most of today's Third World countries. Rapid population growth characterizes this phase.
c. Phase Three:
Low birth rates, low death rates, and a stable population characterize the third phase. This phase includes most of Europe, Japan and The United States. Parents are encouraged to keep families small, in part, because children become an economic burden in advanced industrial societies. People are less dependent on their children as a personal labor force. Later in life, the state provides for social security.
Modernization theory is a model of economic development that explains global inequality in terms of technological and cultural differences among societies.
Multinational corporations are corporations that engage in economic exchange in more than one country. They control the world economy. There is a trend for corporations to increase in size to the point where they form effective monopolies. They experience an ever-increasing centralization of power. They do more of their business in the global arena. Multinational corporations are economic entities whose existence is transnational. They may be based in specific countries (e.g., Exxon in the United States, Shell in Holland), but production and sales occur in the international sphere. The flow of goods and services recognize few boundaries Eitzen's & Baca-Zinn (2003:33) presentation entitled "Corporate Cash" shows that several giant corporations wield more economic power than most of the nation-states on earth. Eitzen & Baca-Zinn (2003:31-33) argue that Exxon-Mobile, General Motors, and Ford have larger economies than all, but seven, of the 191 countries on earth.
Neocolonialism is a form of global power relationships by which multinational corporations exploit poor nations. Historically, the common relationship between rich and poor countries was colonialism. More recently, old colonial affairs characterized by military oppression have been transformed into neocolonial relationships. Military control has given way to a situation where rich countries control poor countries through international markets. The core determines prices for commodities and uses the poor countries as dumping grounds for hazardous waste (see Henslin, 1999:245).
Coal burning emits two pollutant into the air such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide. These pollutants fall to earth attached to rain or snow as nitric and sulfuric acid. Acid rain damages lakes, streams, vegetation, and wild life. Acid rain also destroys metal and concrete. Since acid rain is carried in the atmosphere it is of international concern. The United States exports ingredients of acid precipitation to Canada; England sends them across the North Sea to Scandinavian; and acid haze over Alaska may come from as far away as Japan.
The biosphere is the surface layer of the planet and the surrounding atmosphere which provide the land, air, water, and energy necessary to sustain life .
The cornucopia view of nature is the belief that nature is a vast and bountiful storehouse to be used by human beings. Americans are often accused of harboring a cornucopia view of nature. According to this perspective, American's tend to view nature as a vast store house of resources waiting for people to use. Nature is viewed as something that exists to serve people. Resources are viewed as free and inexhaustible. Perhaps the cornucopia view of resources in grounded in our past. Historically, the U.S. has had vast areas to expand into when social problems became acute. Note that Daniel Boone had only to move when he needed more "elbow room." (Eitzen, 2000:92)
Ecology is the study of how living organisms interact with the natural environment.
The ecosystem is the system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and their natural environment.
Eitzen (2000:98) uses environmental racism and environmental classism to describe the greater likelihood that the poor and racial and ethnic minorities will encounter various kinds of pollution. They are more susceptible than are the nonpoor to excessive noise, foul air, or toxic chemicals such as lead poisoning. They live closer to toxic dumps and toxic plants.
The green house effect refers to the warming of the earth's atmosphere. It is caused by the trapping of solar energy in the atmosphere and results from changes in the ozone layer. Carbon dioxide levels are increasing in the earth's atmosphere which is in turn causes the temperature of the planet to rise (See Eitzen, 2000:90-91). Carbon Dioxide levels have risen 30 percent since 1860. Comparing temperatures over the past 134 years, World Watch notes that 1980, 1981, and 1983 had the highest average temperatures. The arctic tundra in Alaska has warmed 4 to 7 degrees over the last century. What kind of social impact would ensue if the polar ice caps were to melt? The disappearing forest cover, along with heavy use of fossil fuels, combines to produce the greenhouse effect.
Planned obsolescence refers to the creating of demand where no actual need exists. Planned obsolescence occurs when existing products are given superficial changes and marketed as new, making the previous product obsolete. Eitzen (2000:93) argues that economic growth is required by the U.S. economy and economic growth depends on demand for the products created in the economy. If the population is stable, then the economy requires that the current population increase its consumption. Advertising exists, in part, to encourage people to buy what they might not other wise buy. Consumption is also increased when products have to be thrown away (plastic bottles) or if they don’t last very long. Companies "plan" for their product to be short lived so that it has to be replaced. Examples of planned obsolescence can be found in the computer industry. The technology related to mini computers is progressing very rapidly. Many times, however, the new technology is provided to consumers in a piece meal fashion necessitating the consumer to buy a "new and improved" computer every year or so. Microsoft also engages in this practice with their variations on their Windows platform (e.g., Windows 95, 98, 2000, ME, and XP).
The crude birth rate is the number of live births in a given year for every thousand people in a population.
The crude death rate is the number of deaths in a given year for every thousand people in a population.
Demography is the study of human population.
Fertility is the incident of childbearing in a country's population. It is the amount of reproduction among women.
The infant mortality rate is used to refer to the number of deaths among children under one year of age for every thousand live births in a given year.
Mortality is the incidence of death in a country's population.
Gentrification is the process by which private individuals and/or developers purchase old run-down property in cities and renovate them into middle-class condominiums, up scale lofts, or apartments.
Public housing is high-density apartment buildings, constructed with government funds to house poor people.
Redlining is the withholding of home-loan funds or insurance from neighborhoods considered poor economic risks.
Suburbs are the urban-like areas that surround central cities.
Urban Sprawl is the rapid, unplanned and low-density development at the edge of urban areas.
Blaming the victim is the belief that some individuals are poor, criminals, or school dropouts because they have a flaw within the individual that is poor, criminal, etc.
Oscar Lewis, author of La Vita (1965), coined the term "Culture of Poverty" (also see Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited, 1974). The essence of Culture of Poverty theory holds that poor people share deviant cultural characteristics. The poor have lifestyles that differ from the rest of society and that these characteristics perpetuate their life of poverty. According to the Culture of Poverty thesis (in Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:173) "the poor are qualitatively different in values and that these cultural differences explain continued poverty." They are more permissive parents, less verbal, more fatalistic, an d less likely to defer gratification. They are not interested in formal education either.
Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:173) maintain that there is a strong implication embedded in the Culture of Poverty that defects in the lifestyle of the poor [cultural deprivation] perpetuate poverty. Such defects are passed from one generation to the next. Under these circumstances it is extremely difficult for people, once trapped by the Culture of Poverty, to escape poverty.
Characteristics that typify the Culture of Poverty exist across a variety of racial and ethnic groups. While these characteristics are certainly present in poverty populations, Culture of Poverty Theory leaves the impression that they typify all poor people. The Culture of Poverty theory avoids structural explanations for poverty which target social arrangements as the culprit. The C or P blames those who are poor.
Feminization of poverty refers to the trend whereby women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty (Kendall, 1998:34-35) (also see Eitzen, 2000:181).
Income is the salary or wages from a job, plus earnings from investments or other sources.
Meritocracy is a system of social inequality in which social standing corresponds to personal ability or effort.
The new poor are the poor who are displaced by new technologies or whose jobs have moved away to the suburbs, to other regions of the country, or out of the country.
The old poor are the poor of an earlier generation, who had hopes of breaking out of poverty because unskilled and semiskilled jobs were plentiful.
The severely poor (the poor-poor) are people whose cash incomes are at half the poverty line or less.
Poverty is a standard of living below the minimum needed for the maintenance of adequate diet, health, and shelter.
The poverty line is determined by the Social Security Administration and is based on the minimum amount of income needed to provide for the basic necessities of life. The poverty line is computed by multiplying the cost of a basic nutritionally adequate diet by 3.
Social classes are categories of people who have similar access to resources and opportunities.
Social stratification is a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.
The underclass refers to poor people who live in areas with high concentrations of poverty and few opportunities to improve their lives.
Wealth is the total economic assets owned by a person or family.
Wealthfare is government subsidies to the nonpoor. Most government expenditures for human resource programs go to the nonpoor. This includes moneys spent on public education for children and Social Security and Medicare for the elderly.
There are two hidden welfare systems that benefit the wealthy as well. Many wealthy individuals and corporations often pay lower taxes or no taxes at all. For example, the government allows homeowners to deduct from their taxes estate taxes and interest on mortgages. The money saved via tax breaks is four times larger than all funding for low income housing. Only about a quarter of Americans in the top income bracket receive these tax breaks (Eitzen, 2000:188).
The second form of hidden welfare to the wealthy comes in the form of direct subsidies and credit assistance to corporations, banks, agribusiness, defense, etc.
Welfare is government monies or services provided to the poor.
Affirmative action refers to policies intended to improve the social standing of minorities subject to historical prejudice and discrimination. The term Affirmative Action was first used by LBJ in an executive order in 1967 regarding employment with agencies in the federal government. The order said
"The contractor will not discriminate against any employee or applicant because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, color, religion, sex, or national origin."
Farley (2000:491) notes that subsequent orders call for contractors to correct deficiencies and thus increase the number of women and minorities. The subsequent orders further called for a specific set of goals and a timetable that would serve as a measure of success in the efforts to hire more minorities.
It was under the Reagan and Bush administrations where affirmative action was portrayed as a "quota" system.
Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt the cultural patterns of the majority population.
Assimilation is the process of being absorbed into the mainstream of the dominate culture. The assimilation model demands that other groups conform to the dominant culture. New comers are to be socialized into the dominant culture that is already present. It isn't unusual for newly arriving immigrants to change their name to match those names in the dominant culture.
Related to assimilation is the amalgamation model [melting-pot theory] sees the dominant culture as a conglomeration of all groups in society. Each group actively desires to be a part of the dominant culture and makes an important contribution to the whole.
Colonial theory argues that race was used by the dominant group in society to oppress a racial minority.
Ethnicity refers to culturally distinctive characteristics based on items such a common language, religion, national origin, dietary practices, etc. In any case, culture is learned.
Genocide is the systematic killing of one category of people by another.
Institutional racism refers to racism that is entrenched in the established and customary social arrangements that exclude on the basis of race. Institutional discrimination is insidious and, therefore, difficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the fabric of society. Harrington (1984) poetically called institutional discrimination "structures of misery." Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:174) describe institutional discrimination as "the customary ways of doing things, prevailing attitudes and expectations, and accepted structural arrangements [that] works to the disadvantage [of the poor]." Institutional discrimination explains much inequality in gender (and race and ethnicity) found in the workplace.
A majority group is the dominant group in society. The majority group has greater power, privilege, and prestige than other groups.
A minority group is a subordinate group in society. A minority is a category of people who lack power, privilege, and prestige in social, political or economic spheres. Minorities must always be understood in relation to others in the social structure. A minority groups lacks power, prestige, and privilege in relation to others. They are unable to achieve their will. They lack resources to support their own interests effectively.
Multiculturalism refers to educational programs designed to recognize cultural diversity in the United States.
Nativism refers to hostility toward immigrants and efforts to restrict their rights.
Pluralism is a state in which people of all racial and ethnic categories have roughly equal social standing. In a pluralist society unique groups coexist side by side. The uniqueness of each group is considered a trait worth having in the dominant culture. Note our fascination with unique cultures.
Example: American Indians in Santa Fe selling art work.
The consequence of living in a pluralist society is recognition and tolerance of cultural and ethnic diversity.
Prejudice refers to any rigid and irrational generalization about an entire category of people. Prejudice, however, can refer to a positive or a negative attitude or belief directed toward certain people based on their membership in a particular group. The root word of prejudice is "pre-judge."
A race is a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that a society defines as important.
Racial formation is the sociohistorical process by which races are continually being created, shaped and transformed.
Racism refers to attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors that favor one group over another. The minority group might be seen as biologically Innately) inferior and, therefore, practices involving their domination and exploitation are justified.
Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people.
The feminist approach is a view that supports equal relations between women and men.
Gender is the meaning society attaches to being female or male. Gender is a social identity. It is defined culturally.
The gender roles approach is the assertion that males and females differ because of socialization.
The gender structure approach is the assertion that males and females differ because of factors external to them.
Gender stratification is the differential ranking and rewarding of women's and men's roles.
The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier that limits women's upward occupational mobility.
Patriarchy is a form of social organization in which men are dominant over women.
Pay equity (or comparable worth) refers to setting pay scales according to the worth of the job instead of the personal characteristics of the workers.
Sex is the biological fact of maleness and femaleness. It is a biological identity. One is born male or female.
Sexism is the assertion that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other.
Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome.
Bisexuality is the sexual orientation toward or attraction to both sexes.
Feminism is the study of gender with the goal of changing society to make women and men equal.
Heterosexuality is a sexual orientation toward someone of the opposite sex.
Homophobia is the fear or hatred of homosexuality.
Homosexuality is a sexual orientation toward someone of the same sex.
Sexual orientation is the sexual attraction to the same or opposite sex. Many argue that sexual orientation is not a matter of choice but is determined by genetic or environmental factors.
Sexual preference is a person's choice regarding the sex of people to whom he or she is attracted.
Sodomy refers to oral or anal sex.
